After World War II the population grew as many people migrated to the city. "Project Coast: Apartheid's Chemical and Biological Warfare Programme". [96], Brownell asserted that patriotism in the white community was "shallow" due to its essentially expatriate character. However, the requirement excluded a majority of native black people from the electorate. John Ward. They established a relatively balanced economy, transforming what was once a primary producer dependent on backwoods farming into an industrial giant which spawned a strong manufacturing sector, iron and steel industries, and modern mining ventures. [33][34][35] Smith, the colony's first Rhodesian-born leader, soon came to personify resistance to liberals in British government and those agitating for change at home. [96]:606, Rhodesia began to lose vital economic and military support from South Africa, which, while sympathetic to the white minority government, never accorded it diplomatic recognition. [36] Smith ruled out acceptance for all five of the British principles as they stood,[37] implying instead that Rhodesia was already legally entitled to independencea claim that was overwhelmingly endorsed by the predominantly white electorate in a referendum. [5] This situation certainly made it very different from other lands that existed under colonial rule, as many Europeans had arrived to make permanent homes, populating the towns as traders or settling to farm the most productive soils. Transvaal 392 and 242-6 declared. [16][17][18], Over the course of the next three decades, Southern Rhodesia experienced a degree of economic expansion and industrialisation almost unrivaled in sub-Saharan Africa. They also withdrew the personnel and equipment that they had previously provided to aid the war effort, though covert military support continued.[97]. Rhodesia still allowed Zambia to export and import its goods through its territory to Mozambique ports, despite the Zambian government's official policy of hostility and non-recognition of the post-UDI Smith Administration. [5][42][43] The UDI was immediately denounced as an "act of rebellion against the Crown" in the United Kingdom, and Wilson promised that the illegal action would be short-lived. Economically, Southern Rhodesia developed an economy that was narrowly based on the production of a few primary products, notably, chromium and tobacco. by terrorising its political opposition, including supporters of ZAPU, through former insurgents that had not confined themselves to the designated guerrilla assembly points, as stipulated by the Lancaster House Agreement. Though not designed to be scholarly historical treatises on any subjects, we do hope it will give you new insights into our towns story. In the late 19th century, the territory north of the Transvaal was chartered to the British South Africa Company, led by Cecil Rhodes. [100][101] The government abandoned its early strategy of trying to defend the borders in favour of trying to defend key economic areas and lines of communication with South Africa, while the rest of the countryside became a patchwork of "no-go areas". Within the month, the Rhodesian police and army had launched a counteroffensive codenamed Operation Nickel, killing forty-seven insurgents, capturing another twenty, and driving the survivors across the border into Botswana. Note: Zimbabwe formerly known as Rhodesia now calls its capital Harare, instead of Salisbury, as it was known at the time of this film being shot. While often extraordinarily successful in inflicting heavy guerrilla casualties, such raids also on occasion failed to achieve their objectives. [70] In response, the Rhodesian security forces began coordinating operations in Mozambique with the Portuguese army to intercept ZANLA insurgents before they could cross the border. [109], The shooting down on 3 September 1978 of the civilian Air Rhodesia airliner, a Vickers Viscount named the Hunyani, in the Kariba area by ZIPRA fighters using a surface-to-air missile, with the subsequent massacre of 10 of its 18 survivors, is widely considered to be the event that finally destroyed the Rhodesians' will to continue the war. [79] Its political ideology was somewhat more influenced by the principles of Maoism than ZAPU, and a sympathetic Chinese government soon agreed to furbish weapons and training for ZANU's own war effort. The city is a trade centre for tobacco, maize, cotton, and citrus fruits. [21][27] They were also disturbed by the chaos of the post-colonial political transitions occurring in other African nations at the time, such as the Democratic Republic of the Congo. [108] A group of ZANLA fighters killed Lord Richard on 20 April 1978 when he was accompanying a Rhodesian airborne unit employed in Fire Force Operations. Salisbury Historical Society, New Hampshire Preserving Our Town's History and Traditions Exploring Salisbury, Then and Now This open sharing portion of our website and its pages are dedicated to an exploration of various subjects relevant to our town's history as well as its continuing traditions. The government amended the Constitution in 1987 to abolish the seats reserved for whites, and replace the office of Prime Minister with an executive President. This is widely blamed for leading to the deterioration of the Zimbabwean economy, which plagues the country today.[120]. Register now. However, many native Africans still adhered to traditional African religions. [138] Kenneth Kaunda, president of Zambia, also accused western oil companies of violating the sanctions and selling oil to Rhodesia. However, the government forced Todd from office because his proposed reforms were seen by many whites as too radical. [29] However, once Rhodesia had been introduced as a topic for discussion in international bodies, extension of the status quo became a matter of concern to the British government, which perceived the scrutiny as a serious embarrassment to the United Kingdom. Rhodesia's largest cities were Salisbury (its capital city, now known as Harare) and Bulawayo. Ardently anti-communist, Rhodesia tried to present itself to the West as a front-line state against communist expansion in Africa, to little avail. The growing intensity of the civil war and a lack of international support eventually led the Rhodesian government to submit to an agreement with the UK in 1979. Chandr Gould and Peter Folb. History of phone and mailservice in Salisbury. These economic successes owed little to foreign aid apart from the immigration of skilled labour. [155] In 1973, the Labor government of Gough Whitlam cut post and telephone links to the centre, but this was ruled illegal by the High Court. [79] He made formal requests for Soviet funding and arms for ZIPRA, explaining that "for these purposes ZAPU needs arms, explosives, revolversthe party also needs money to bribe persons who guard important installations, to carry out sabotage". . By 19781979, the war had become a contest between the guerrilla warfare placing ever increasing pressure on the Rhodesian regime and civil population, and the Rhodesian government's strategy of trying to hold off the militants until external recognition for a compromise political settlement with moderate black leaders could be secured. Growing war weariness, diplomatic pressure, and an extensive trade embargo imposed by the United Nations prompted Rhodesian prime minister Ian Smith to concede to majority rule in 1978. Six months' continuous residence was also required for qualifications (b) and (c). [123] In 1978 the Rhodesian Army had about 14,000 white national servicemen, but continued manpower shortages forced it to recruit black volunteers in larger numbers and extend compulsory military service to all white males up to sixty years of age. . Back to school shop. Ed Bird. The office of President had only ceremonial significance with the Prime Minister holding executive power. The United Nations Security Council Resolution 216 of 12 November 1965 called "upon all States not to recognise this illegal racist minority regime in Southern Rhodesia."[140]. While the 1979 election was described by the Rhodesian government as non-racial and democratic, it did not include the main nationalist parties ZANU and ZAPU. [6] Rhodesia declared itself a republic on 2 March 1970. Unless we are to lay ourselves open to the possibility of defeat in detail, we must fight this enemy jointlyif not simultaneously. Issues 21-40 of the Rhodesiana - Magazine about Rhodesia and Rhodesian History Item Preview remove-circle Share or Embed This Item. Up until the 1950s, Southern Rhodesia had a vibrant political life with right and left wing parties competing for power. [79] However, thereafter it recruited predominantly from the Ndebele ethnic group. Prior to 1970, the unicameral Legislative Assembly was predominantly white, with a small number of seats reserved for black representatives. "[122] The formidable nature of the Rhodesian security forces, as well as British fears of a direct South African intervention on behalf of the rogue colony, preempted the further consideration of military options. It was essentially a power-sharing arrangement between white people and black people which, in the eyes of many, particularly the insurgents, did not amount to majority rule. Preserving Our Town's History and Traditions, Salisbury Historical Society, New Hampshire. [105] New white immigrants continued to arrive in Rhodesia right up to the eve of majority rule. [6][7] In 1922, faced with the decision to join the Union of South Africa as a fifth province or accept nearly full internal autonomy, the electorate cast its vote against South African integration. The three-month-long conference almost failed to reach conclusion, due to disagreements on land reform, but resulted in the Lancaster House Agreement. Note the Kopje to the right from which many views of Rhodesia's capital have been taken down the years. The independence constitution agreed at Lancaster House watered those provisions down and reserved 20 out of 100 seats for whites in the House of Assembly and 8 out of 40 seats in the Senate. Salisbury was the capital of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (1953-63). Moving old buildings (how did they do that?). Under the new constitution, a president served as ceremonial head of state, with the prime minister nominally reporting to him. By December 1979 Muzorewa had secured an agreement with ZAPU and ZANU, allowing Rhodesia to briefly revert to colonial status pending new elections under British supervision. Talks quickly broke down, and final efforts in October to achieve a settlement floundered; the Smith government remained unwilling to accept the five principles of independence, and the British government argued it would settle for nothing less. [127] They also poisoned water sources along known infiltration routes along the Rhodesian border, forcing their opponents to travel through more arid regions or carry more water during their treks. GV . Prime Minister John Vorster, believing majority rule in Rhodesia would lead to international acceptance for South Africa, used a number of tactics to pressure Smith. [118] The alleged coup was to include the assassination of Mugabe and coordinated assaults on guerrilla assembly points throughout the country. [46] After UDI was proclaimed, UN officials branded the Rhodesian government as an "illegal racist minority regime"[47] and called on member states to voluntarily sever economic ties with Rhodesia, recommending sanctions on petroleum products and military hardware. However, after a meeting with Robert Mugabe and the central committee of ZANU (PF), Ian Smith was reassured that whites could and should stay in the new Zimbabwe. 1897 (7 May) O.P.S (Returned Letter Branch) envelope to Bulawayo showing 'SALISBURY/MASHONALAND' c.d.s, 1901 (Aug) 1d card to Selekwe cancelled by 'GWELO/RHODESIA' double ring d/stamp, 1907 (21 Mar) d card to Belingwe cancelled by 'GWELO/RHODESIA' double ring d/stamp and showing arrival c.d.s alongside, 1923 (8 Dec) 1d wrapper to Gwelo cancelled superb 'HEADLANDS/RHODESIA' double ring d . [96]:601 Of the 3,000 white men liable for conscription in 1973, only about 1,000 reported when called-up. hazardous journey from what was then Bechuanaland. Beadle argued that due to Britain's economic war against Rhodesia, she could not (at the same point) be described as governing Rhodesia. Rhodesia predominantly adhered to Christianity, with Protestantism being the largest denomination. There were also many snakes and lizards, over 500 bird species, and 131 fish species. The 1969 republican constitution established a bicameral Parliament consisting of an indirectly elected Senate and a directly elected House of Assembly, effectively reserving the majority of seats for whites. "[81] Nevertheless, aside from intelligence-sharing and some limited coordination on the operational level in Mozambique, the Portuguese could offer Rhodesia little decisive assistance. This attitude was part of the larger decolonisation context, during which Western powers such as the United Kingdom, France, and Belgium hastened to grant independence to their colonies in Africa. [29] Both groups remained opposed to majority rule in the near future. Although this video constitutes fair use, it's been copyright claimed by British Pathe, and is now owned by them. All footage can be viewed on the British Path website. [6], After the federation was dissolved in December 1963, the then British Prime Minister, Sir Alec Douglas-Home, insisted that preconditions on independence talks hinge on what he termed the "five principles" unimpeded progress to majority rule, assurance against any future legislation decidedly detrimental to black interests, "improvement in the political status" of local Africans, an end to official racial discrimination, and a political settlement that could be "acceptable to the whole population". The governing white minority of Rhodesia, led by Ian Smith, opposed the policy and its implications. See, [rathall+rhodesia++Minister+of+Finance+and+of+Posts+and+ They point to materiel and training provided by communist countries to insurgency groups operating against white minority governments in southern Africa. [83] ZIPRA's failure to obtain support from the locals was also noted, and ZANLA began implementing a long-term covert politicisation programme to cultivate civilian support throughout its future area of operations. Salisbury, Zimbabwe Sign - 'Radio City' camera pans down to show various radios for sale. On 11 November 1965, Rhodesia's minority white government made a unilateral declaration of independence (UDI) from the United Kingdom, as it became apparent that negotiations would not lead to independence under the white regime. [36] A Rhodesian Trade Office was opened in Lisbon in order to co-ordinate breaking the anticipated sanctions in the event of a unilateral declaration of independence later that year, which encouraged Smith not to compromise. [28] According to the commission, whites were in favour of the settlement, and Rhodesians of Coloured or Asian ancestry generally pleased, while the black response to the settlement's terms was resoundingly negative. In an effort to delay the transition to black majority rule, the predominantly white Southern Rhodesian government issued its own Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) from the United Kingdom on 11 November 1965. [126], Biological agents, namely Vibrio cholerae, had some impact on the fighting capability of ZANLA. [29] A greater degree of social and political equality, they argued, was acceptable once more black citizens had obtained higher educational and vocational standards. [133] A majority of Rhodesia's Indian community spoke Gujarati and a minority spoke Hindi. However, the emerging doctrine of self-determination in colonial situations meant that most nations regarded Rhodesia's self-declared independence as illegitimate. In 1970, the United States declared it would not recognise UDI "under [any] circumstances". The Rhodesian military seriously considered mounting a coup against a perceived stolen election ("Operation Quartz") to prevent ZANU from taking over the country. There is simply no comparison between the qualities and successes of Rhodesia and its political successor, Zimbabwe. [145] This prompted protests from the British government, which was determined that the representative, Harry Reedman, should be a nominal member of the British Ambassador's staff. Politically within Zimbabwe, the consolidation of power by Robert Mugabe continued through the 1980s. [79] The Soviets began training ZIPRA militants in guerrilla warfare in early 1964. 2 Waste-Illustrator145 10 hr. [79] By August 1964, ZANU was banned by the Rhodesian government as well, which cited widespread acts of violent intimidation attributed to its members. [83], In August 1967, a large and better-equipped column of almost seventy ZIPRA insurgents infiltrated Rhodesia from Zambia, bolstered by recruits from an allied South African militant organisation, uMkhonto we Sizwe (MK). After Smith formally announced the UDI on the radio, Governor Gibbs used his reserve power to dismiss Smith and his entire cabinet from office, on orders from the Colonial Office in Whitehall. A large number of these immigrants were of British working-class origin, with others coming from the Belgian Congo, Kenya, Tanzania, and later Angola and Mozambique. [6] ZAPU did retain Shona members, even among its senior leadership following the split. "[119] Mugabe, however, would reverse his commitment to these agreements some years later; the regime began confiscating white-owned farmlands. [91] However, the situation changed dramatically after the end of Portuguese colonial rule in Mozambique in 1975. [6] Over the next nine years Rhodesian companies, spiting the freezing of their assets and blocking of overseas accounts, also perfected cunning techniques of sanctions evasion through both local and foreign subsidiaries, which operated on a clandestine trade network. White Rhodesians mostly spoke English, with a minority that spoke Afrikaans. [40][41] Wilson's refusal to consider a military option further encouraged Smith to proceed with his plans. The economy of the state of Rhodesia sustained international sanctions for a decade following the declaration of its independence, a resistance which waned as more southern African states declared independence and majority rule as well as the destruction of the Rhodesian Bush War. [29] The second faction in the white community was wholly unwilling to concede the principle, much less the practice, of equality to the black population. E/C Neg.) In 1979, some special forces units were accused of using counterinsurgent operations as cover for ivory poaching and smuggling. Many prospective white immigrants in Rhodesia arrived seeking economic opportunities and departed with fluctuations in the security situation as the Bush War intensified. Rhodesia wished to retain its economic prosperity and also feared communist elements in the rebel forces, and thus felt their policy of a gradual progression to black majority rule was justified. [124] Rhodesian units compensated for their disadvantage in this regard by pursuing an aggressive preemptive and counterstrike strategy, raiding neighbouring states to destroy guerrilla forces in their external sanctuaries. They also looked at using Rickettsia prowazekii (causative agent of epidemic typhus), and Salmonella typhi (causative agent of typhoid fever), and toxins such as ricin and botulinum toxin. Rhodesians Reflect on the Elections of 1979 and 1980", Rhodesian Bush War historical research / discussion forum, Ironing the lawn in Salisbury the last days of Rhodesia, 1975 BBC report on the failure of negotiations between the Rhodesian government and the black nationalists, The Brookings Institution: Managing Ethnic Conflict in Africa Rhodesia/Zimbabwe, Selby, Angus (2006) "Commercial Farmers and the State: Interest Group Politics and Land Reform in Zimbabwe, 18902005", PhD Thesis, Oxford University, Audio of Ian Smith's radio address announcing UDI, Southern Rhodesia African National Congress, Rhodesia unilaterally declared independence, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rhodesia&oldid=1134347187, States and territories disestablished in 1979, States and territories established in 1965, Articles with dead external links from April 2019, Articles with permanently dead external links, Articles with dead external links from December 2017, Short description is different from Wikidata, Use South African English from April 2016, All Wikipedia articles written in South African English, Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the flag caption or type parameters, Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the symbol caption or type parameters, All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases, Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from March 2017, Articles with unsourced statements from May 2016, Articles needing additional references from May 2020, All articles needing additional references, Articles needing additional references from February 2011, Articles with unsourced statements from December 2021, Pages using Sister project links with default search, Zimbabwe articles missing geocoordinate data, Articles missing coordinates with coordinates on Wikidata, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, This page was last edited on 18 January 2023, at 06:44. [11][12][13][14] Shortly after annexation, on 1 October 1923, the first constitution for the new Colony of Southern Rhodesia came into force. He also claimed that the majority of white immigrants in the late 1960s and early 1970s were unskilled laborers who competed with the country's black African workforce and did not contribute badly needed technical or professional skills to the country, arguing that this was due to government policy aimed at making white immigration as "unselective as possible" and guaranteeing every white immigrant a job. At this point, ZANU's alliance with FRELIMO and the porous border between Mozambique and eastern Rhodesia enabled large-scale training and infiltration of ZANU/ZANLA fighters. The Pioneer Column halted here on 12th September and the next day the Union Flag was formally raised. Of state, with the Prime Minister nominally reporting to him of the Zimbabwean,. 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