[149] The end of the reign of Abbas II, 1666, thus marked the beginning of the end of the Safavid dynasty. The Qizilbash were warriors, spiritual followers of Haydar, and a source of the Safavid military and political power. Safavid art is the art of the Persian Safavid dynasty from 1501 to 1722, in present-day Iran. [31] His relationships with his Qizilbash followers were also fundamentally altered. The 16-year-old Abbas I was installed as nominal shah in 1588, but the real power was intended to remain in the hands of his "mentor," Murshid Quli Khan, who reorganized court offices and principal governorships among the Qizilbash[108] and took the title of wakl for himself. Meeting with little success, Abbs engaged in a major army reform. (attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY 4.0 license) The Rise of the Safavid Empire Tahmasp then handed the prince over to the Ottoman ambassador. [63] Furthermore, by the early 1510s Ismail's expansionistic policies had pushed the Safavid borders in Asia Minor even more westwards. [102] More seriously the Ottomans ended the Peace of Amasya and commenced a war with Iran that would last until 1590 by invading Iran's territories of Georgia and Shirvan. How many rulers did the Safavid empire have? In the meantime, the navy-less Safavids lost the island of Hormuz to the Portuguese in 1507. By the time of Isml I, the orders sixth head, the afavs commanded enough support from the Kizilbashlocal Turkmens and other disaffected heterodox tribesto enable him to capture Tabrz from the Ak Koyunlu (Turkish: White Sheep), an Uzbek Turkmen confederation. In 1511, the ahkulu rebellion was a widespread pro-Shia and pro-Safavid uprising directed against the Ottoman Empire from within the empire. For more than two centuries the Safavid kingdom prolonged the older political and cultural tradition of Persia and endowed the country and its peoples with a unique character of historic significance . Szczepanski, Kallie. In any event, he was ultimately killed (according to some accounts) by his Circassian half-sister, Pari Khn Khnum, who championed him over Haydar. The kingdom further extended its territory to include overseas lands that were acquired through declarations of loyalty to the Ottoman Sultan and caliph. The Safavid state was one of checks and balance, both within the government and on a local level. Poetry lacked the royal patronage of other arts and was hemmed in by religious prescriptions. The elegantly baroque, yet famously misnamed, "Polonaise" carpets were made in Iran during the seventeenth century. Although the early afav order was originally Sunni, following the jurisprudence of the Shfi school, it gravitated toward Shiism over time, perhaps pulled along by the popular veneration of Al. This defection of two of the shah's most trusted subjects and gholams infuriated the shah, as reported by the Safavid court historian Iskander Beg Munshi. According to historian Roger Savory, "Sheikh Junayd was not content with spiritual authority and he sought material power. There probably did not exist any parliament, as we know them today. [167][failed verification].mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}html.client-js body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .mbox-text-span{margin-left:23px!important}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}, Shah Tahmasp introduced a change to this, when he, and the other Safavid rulers who succeeded him, sought to blur the formerly defined lines between the two linguistic groups, by taking the sons of Turkic-speaking officers into the royal household for their education in the Persian language. From this time the state began to take on a more Persian character. Not only did the invasions bring about the end of the Abbasid empire and leave the centre of eastern Islamdom fractured, but the arrival of new Turkic peoples and dynasties throughout much of Islamdom shifted the axes of power into the hands of Turkic clans. The two wrestlers were covered in grease. In the gravest crisis of Tahmsp's reign, Ottoman forces in 155354 captured Yerevan, Karabakh and Nakhjuwan, destroyed palaces, villas and gardens, and threatened Ardabil. The first two years of Tahmsp's reign was consumed with Div Sultns efforts to eliminate Ustajlu from power. According to William Cleveland and Martin Bunton,[232] the establishment of Isfahan as the Great capital of Iran and the material splendor of the city attracted intellectual's from all corners of the world, which contributed to the city's rich cultural life. Despite falling revenues and military threats, later shahs had lavish lifestyles. Economically robust and politically stable, this period saw a flourishing growth of theological sciences. [214] According to Chardin, they were also more abundant than in the Mughal or Ottoman Empires, where they were less frequent but larger. This variety of Persian Turkish must have been also spoken in the Caucasian and Transcaucasian regions, which during the 16th century belonged to both the Ottomans and the Safavids, and were not fully integrated into the Safavid empire until 1606. [83] Therefore, in 1540, Shah Tahmsp started the first of a series of invasions of the Caucasus region, both meant as a training and drilling for his soldiers, as well as mainly bringing back massive numbers of Christian Circassian and Georgian slaves, who would form the basis of a military slave system,[84] alike to the janissaries of the neighbouring Ottoman Empire,[85] as well as at the same time forming a new layer in Iranian society composed of ethnic Caucasians. ThoughtCo. [171], Following the full implementation of this policy by Abbas I, the women (only Circassian and Georgian) now very often came to occupy prominent positions in the harems of the Safavid elite, while the men who became part of the ghulam "class" as part of the powerful third force were given special training on completion of which they were either enrolled in one of the newly created ghilman regiments, or employed in the royal household. In 1527 Tahmsp demonstrated his desire by shooting an arrow at Div Soltn before the assembled court. In order not to favor one Turkic tribe over another and to avoid inflaming the Turk-Persian enmity, he recruited his army from the "third force", a policy that had been implemented in its baby-steps since the reign of Tahmasp Ithe Circassian, Georgian and to a lesser extent Armenian ghulms (slaves) which (after conversion to Islam) were trained for the military or some branch of the civil or military administration. [111][112] At the same time, he took steps to ensure that the Qizilbash did not mistake this apparent show of weakness as a signal for more tribal rivalry at the court. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. Richard Tapper. Subsequently, the shah marched upon Grem, the capital of Imereti, and punished its peoples for harbouring his defected subjects. So absolute was his power, that the French merchant, and later ambassador to Iran, Jean Chardin thought the Safavid Shahs ruled their land with an iron fist and often in a despotic manner. The term dowlat, which in modern Persian means "government", was then an abstract term meaning "bliss" or "felicity", and it began to be used as concrete sense of the Safavid state, reflecting the view that the people had of their ruler, as someone elevated above humanity. This form of Turkish was also the mother-tongue of Shah Abbas, although he was equally at ease speaking Persian. Blow, David; Shah Abbas: The ruthless king who became an Iranian legend, pp. [83] Their formation, implementation, and usage was very much alike to the janissaries of the neighbouring Ottoman Empire. "[citation needed] At that time, the most powerful dynasty in Iran was that of the Kara Koyunlu, the "Black Sheep", whose ruler Jahan Shah ordered Junyd to leave Ardabil or else he would bring destruction and ruin upon the city. [110] Before he could begin to embark on the first stage, he needed relief from the most serious threat to the empire: the military pressure from the Ottomans. He had completely driven out the Afghans, who were still occupying Persia, by 1730. While large in terms of land area, the large proportion of deserts and mountains in its territory meant density was very low; the empire's population is estimated to have probably numbered between eight and ten million in 1650, as compared to c.20 million for the Ottoman Empire in 1600. The greatest of the Safavid monarchs, Shah Abbas (15871629) came to power in 1587, at the age of 16, following the forced abdication of his father, Shah Muhammad Khudbanda. This clearly differentiated Iran from the Ottomans, who were Sunnis. Abbas's tolerance towards Christians was part of his policy of establishing diplomatic links with European powers to try to enlist their help in the fight against their common enemy, the Ottoman Empire. That condition would not change (and in fact it would worsen) until Tahmsp's grandson, Abbas I, assumed the throne. They were of Kurdish Persian decent with unique customs. https://www.thoughtco.com/what-was-the-safavid-empire-195397 (accessed January 18, 2023). During these operations an agent of the Samlu (now supporting Sam Mizra's pretensions) attempted to poison the shah. Merit One of the Shirley brothers, Robert Shirley, would lead Abbas's second diplomatic mission to Europe from 1609 to 1615. "Iran and Pre-Independence Lebanon" in Houchang Esfandiar Chehabi. Using traditional forms and materials, Reza Abbasi (15651635) introduced new subjects to Persian paintingsemi-nude women, youths, lovers. A major problem faced by Ismail I after the establishment of the Safavid state was how to bridge the gap between the two major ethnic groups in that state: the Qizilbash ("Redhead") Turcomans, the "men of sword" of classical Islamic society whose military prowess had brought him to power, and the Persian elements, the "men of the pen", who filled the ranks of the bureaucracy and the religious establishment in the Safavid state as they had done for centuries under previous rulers of Iran, be they Arabs, Mongols, or Turkmens. This map shows the Safavid Empire (green) at its greatest extent, including disputed territories (dots) where the Safavids found themselves in conflict with the Ottoman Empire (orange) and the Uzbek rulers of the Khanate of Bukhara (purple). [16] The inscriptions on Safavid currency were also in Persian. [96], The amirs demanded that she be removed, and Mahd-i Ulya was strangled in the harem in July 1579 on the ground of an alleged affair with the brother of the Crimean khan, Adil Giray,[96] who was captured during the 15781590 Ottoman war and held captive in the capital, Qazvin. [187] To ensure transparency and avoid decisions being made that circumvented the Shah, a complex system of bureaucracy and departmental procedures had been put in place that prevented fraud. Iskander Beg Monshis History of Shah Abbas the Great, written a few years after its subject's death, achieved a nuanced depth of history and character. Since two other sons had predeceased him, the result was a personal tragedy for Shah Abbas. Safavids (1501-1736), the dynasty that took control of Persia in the early 16th century, is often considered the beginning of modern Persian history. Then two Englishmen, Robert Sherley and his brother Anthony, helped Abbas I to reorganize the Shah's soldiers into a partially paid and well-trained standing army similar to the European model (which the Ottomans had already adopted). [183] It remains only a small minority in the Shii world. According to the French jeweller Jean Chardin, the variety in agricultural products in Iran was unrivaled in Europe and consisted of fruits and vegetables never even heard of in Europe. Because of the relative insecurity of property ownership in Iran, many private landowners secured their lands by donating them to the clergy as so called vaqf. After a long and bloody siege led by the Safavid grand vizier Hatem Beg, which lasted from November 1609 to the summer of 1610, the Kurdish stronghold of Dimdim was captured. Although the Uzbeks continued to make occasional raids into Khorasan, the Safavid empire was able to keep them at bay throughout its reign. He then besieged the capital of Isfahan, until Shah Soltan Hoseyn abdicated and acknowledged him as the new king of Iran. Who were Safavids? Abbas was able to begin gradually transforming the empire from a tribal confederation to a modern imperial government by transferring provinces from mamalik (provincial) rule governed by a Qizilbash chief and the revenue of which mostly supported local Qizilbash administration and forces to khass (central) rule presided over by a court appointee and the revenue of which reverted to the court. Thvenot and Tavernier commented that the Iranian caravanserais were better built and cleaner than their Turkish counterparts. Each element constituted 20 percent of the crop production, and if, for instance, the farmer provided the labour force and the animals, he would be entitled to 40 percent of the earnings. All other religions, and forms of Islam were suppressed. . Later, during the Safavid and especially Qajar period, the role of Shi'a ulema increased and they were able to exercise a role in social and political life independent of the government. This meant that even the Prime Minister, who held the highest office in the state, had to work in association with the Nazir when it came to managing those transactions that directly related to the Shah.[190]. But Selim was an alcoholic and Hrrem's other son, Bayezid, had shown far greater military ability. The Silk Road, which led through northern Iran to India, revived in the sixteenth century. In the Safavid empire the land was arid making it hard for agriculture to thrive. The school reached its apogee with that of the Iranian philosopher Mulla Sadra who is arguably the most significant Islamic philosopher after Avicenna. Yet over the course of ten years Abbas was able, using cautiously-timed but nonetheless decisive steps, to affect a profound transformation of Safavid administration and military, throw back the foreign invaders, and preside over a flourishing of Persian art. [70] Decentralized control over Uzbek forces was largely responsible for the inability of the Uzbeks to make territorial inroads into Khorasan. [2] Shah Abbas I recognized the commercial benefit of promoting the artsartisan's products provided much of Iran's foreign trade. $ 3.95. In cultural matters, Tahmsp presided the revival of the fine arts, which flourished under his patronage. William L. Cleveland and Martin P. Bunton. We will write a custom Essay on The Ottoman and Safavid Empires: Comparison specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page 808 certified writers online Learn More Introduction All empires, no matter how great they are, inevitably have to experience the same cycle of gradual development, the possible rise, and the inevitable downfall. [49] According to Arnold J. Toynbee,[245], In the heyday of the Mughal, Safawi, and Ottoman regimes New Persian was being patronized as the language of litterae humaniores by the ruling element over the whole of this huge realm, while it was also being employed as the official language of administration in those two-thirds of its realm that lay within the Safawi and the Mughal frontiers. Having started with just the possession of Azerbaijan, Shirvan, southern Dagestan (with its important city of Derbent), and Armenia in 1501,[60] Erzincan and Erzurum fell into his power in 1502,[61] Hamadan in 1503, Shiraz and Kerman in 1504, Diyarbakir, Najaf, and Karbala in 1507, Van in 1508, Baghdad in 1509, and Herat, as well as other parts of Khorasan, in 1510. Junayd was killed during an incursion into the territories of the Shirvanshah and was succeeded by his son Haydar Safavi. Realizing the limits of his military strength, Abbs made peace with the Ottomans on unfavourable terms in 1590 and directed his onslaughts against the Uzbeks. [106] The siege of Herat thus ended in 1583 without Ali Quli Khan's surrender, and Khorasan was in a state of open rebellion. "[135] Abbas would take active and all measures needed in order to seal the alliances. The Middle Ages had seen a series of invasions of Iran by Turks, Mongols, and others. But it was not the Turkish of Istanbul. Travelling was valued only for the specific purpose of getting from one place to another, not interesting themselves in seeing new places and experiencing different cultures. In January 1502, Esma'il defeated the army of Alvand Beig of Aq Qoyunlu, ruler of Azerbaijan, and seized Tabriz and made this city his capital. [16][22] But the official[10] language of the empire as well as the administrative language, language of correspondence, literature and historiography was Persian. This layer would become the "third force" in Iranian society, alongside the other two forces, the Turkomans and Persians. Shah Ismail I was the first of the Safavids to try to establish once again an alliance against the common Ottoman enemy through the earlier stages of the HabsburgPersian alliance, but this also proved to be largely unfruitful during his reign. The Safavid Empire lasted from 1501-1722. Another famous manuscript is the Khamsa by Nezami executed in 1539-43, by Aqa Mirak and his school in Isfahan. Even though the Safavids were not the first Shii rulers in Iran, they played a crucial role in making Shia Islam the official religion in the whole of Iran, as well as what is nowadays the Republic of Azerbaijan. No act of the Shah was valid without the counter seal of the Prime Minister. Shah ljeitthe sultan of Ilkhanate converted to Twelver Shiism in thirteenth century. For instance, the Qajar dynasty (1789-1925), the first major dynasty to succeed the Safavids, continued the tradition of Safavid book arts, painting, and architecture. Nadir had effective control under Shah Tahmasp II and then ruled as regent of the infant Abbas III until 1736 when he had himself crowned shah. [73] Nevertheless, given the insecurity in Iraq and its northwest territory, Tahmsp moved his court from Tabriz to Qazvin. [133] Abbas's attitude, however, was in marked contrast to that of his grandfather, Tahmasp I, who had expelled the English traveller Anthony Jenkinson from his court on hearing he was a Christian. What remained unchanged, however, was the constant threat of local disaffection with the weak central authority. Georgian, Circassian and Armenian were also spoken, since these were the mother-tongues of many of the ghulams, as well as of a high proportion of the women of the harem. According to Donald Struesand, "although the Safavid unification of the eastern and western halves of the Iranian plateau and imposition of Twelver Shii Islam on the region created a recognizable precursor of modern Iran, the Safavid polity itself was neither distinctively Iranian nor national. As one of the powerful "gunpowder empires" of the age, the Safavids re-established Persia's place as a key player in economics and geopolitics at the intersection of the eastern and western worlds. The Safavid dynasty under Shah Ismail (961/1501) adopted Persian and the Shiite form of Islam as the national language and religion. The Safavids generally ruled over a peaceful and prosperous empire. During the early 17th century the power of the Qizilbash drastically diminished, the original militia that had helped Ismail I capture Tabriz and that had gained many administrative powers over the centuries. [99] He may have believed that he would rule once their enemy was disposed of, but Mahd-i Uly proved the stronger of the two. The Shirley brothers arrived in 1598 and helped reorganize the Iranian army, which proved to be crucial in the OttomanSafavid War (160318), which resulted in Ottoman defeats in all stages of the war and the first clear pitched Safavid victory of their archrivals. Safavid power and territory grew quickly, yet the empire was prone to Sunni attack from the Uzbeks in the North, Mughals in the . On these occasions the royal edicts were drawn up and sealed. His tactics in dealing with the Ottoman threat eventually allowed for a treaty which preserved peace for twenty years. Between 1508 and 1524, the year of Ismail's death, the shah appointed five successive Persians to the office of vakil. Roemer, H.R. [192], The only field within medicine where some progress were made was pharmacology, with the compilement of the "Tibb-e Shifai" in 1556. The Safavids were defeated and, as the Ottoman force moved on Tabriz, engaged in scorched-earth combat. The latter were all secular functionaries working on behalf of the Shah.[200]. Tobacco grew all over the country and was as strong as that grown in Brazil. Indeed, this had been the situation throughout Persian history, even before the Safavids, ever since the Arab conquest. The terms of trade were not imposed on the Safavid shahs, but rather negotiated. Of these various movements, the Safavid Qizilbash was the most politically resilient, and due to its success Shah Ismail I gained political prominence in 1501. The Chief architect of this colossal task of urban planning was Shaykh Bahai (Baha' ad-Din al-`Amili), who focused the programme on two key features of Shah Abbas's master plan: the Chahar Bagh avenue, flanked at either side by all the prominent institutions of the city, such as the residences of all foreign dignitaries. Despite being based on urf, it relied upon certain sets of legal principles. In addition to fighting its perennial enemies, their archrival the Ottomans and the Uzbeks as the 17th century progressed, Iran had to contend with the rise of new neighbors. That is for the women and to get themselves in good form. "Review of Emile Janssens'. A dispute arose in the Ottoman Empire over who was to succeed the aged Suleiman the Magnificent. Shah Abbss remarkable reign, with its striking military successes and efficient administrative system, raised Iran to the status of a great power. Rosemary Stanfield Johnson, "Sunni Survival in Safavid Iran: Anti-Sunni Activities during the Reign of Tahmasp I,", Abolala Soudavar, "The Patronage of Vizier Mirza Salman,", harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSavory1980 (, harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998 (, harvnb error: no target: CITEREFAsat'ianiBendianachvili1997 (. Corrections? [74] The goal of the Ottomans in the 1534 and 15481549 campaigns, during the 15321555 OttomanSafavid War, was to install Tahmsp's brothers (Sam Mirza and Alqas Mirza, respectively) as shah in order to make Iran a vassal state. [78][79] After Humayun converted to Shii Islam (under extreme duress),[78] Tahmsp offered him military assistance to regain his territories in return for Kandahar, which controlled the overland trade route between central Iran and the Ganges. However, a mutiny among his officers who refused to spend the winter at Tabriz forced him to withdraw across territory laid waste by the Safavid forces, eight days later". The epic Shahnameh ("Book of Kings"), a stellar example of manuscript illumination and calligraphy, was made during Shah Tahmasp's reign. The language chiefly used by the Safavid court and military establishment was Azerbaijani. [121], The following spring in 1614, Abbas I appointed a grandson of Alexander II of Imereti to the throne of Kartli, Jesse of Kakheti also known as "Is Khn". Iranian philosopher Mulla Sadra who is arguably the most significant Islamic philosopher after Avicenna were of Kurdish Persian with! Of Iran 183 ] it remains only a small minority in the world! Peaceful and prosperous empire arts and was hemmed in by religious prescriptions were better built and cleaner Their. Rather negotiated Sam Mizra 's pretensions ) attempted to poison the Shah marched upon Grem, the of. 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